ROAD & HIGHWAY
DURABILITY | DAMAGE MITIGATION | COST MINIMISATION
QuantCrete nanoadditives are presented as an efficient & essential remedy for preventative road & infrastructure maintenance, in order to help curtail the high cost of road extensive repairs or future replacements, which can range from hundreds of millions to billions dollars per annum.
Asphalt or bitumen is used in road construction . It's a petroleum product which adds volatility to its pricing. Although its content in road construction is ~ 4 - 5 % , it is the most expensive component, averaging ~ $115,000 per kilometre ($184,000 per mile). It is also a significant environmental air pollutant and a carcinogen.
Asphalt concrete (AC) which is used to build roads, refers to concrete as a composite material composed of mineral aggregate adhered with asphalt/bitumen as a binder, which is the (heated) liquid portion of the mix.
Asphalt however, is less durable than concrete. We propose the use of QuantCrete to enhance the durability of concrete in aspects such as increased flexural strength to prevent cracking, resistance to heat- and frost-cycles and salt corrosion. With an increased durability, less asphalt is used.
QuantCrete also offers the ability to use between 15 - 40% less cement per cubic meter/yard of concrete without compromising its performance. This further drops the costs of road construction as well as its carbon footprint. The improved workability of concrete with QuantCrete also facilitates the surface modoification of roads during construction, for smoothner finishes and reduced noise.
Our QuantCrete nanoadditives offer pathways to circumvent and/or minimise the use of toxic construction materials by providing a means to render durability to more sustainable & less toxic systems. In concrete, QuantCrete nanoadditives enable :
lower porosity
High corrosion resistance
Low alkali reactivity
Mitigate sulphate Attack
Increase soil Stabilisation
Shield nuclear & electromagnetic radiation
Increase compressive & flexural strength
Improve waterproofing
As such, QuantCrete products resolve a vast range of issues that cause failure in concrete which will confer better durability, reduce maintenance frequency rates and lower road construction costs. Some of the issues that cause failure in AC and the QuantCrete products used to mitigate them entail :
- Heat & strong sunlight which causes asphalt to oxidise, stiffen and become brittle | QUANTCRETE FLEX
- Cracks caused by water trapped under the road freezing & expanding | QUANTCRETE FILLER , QUANTCRETE CURE & QUANTCRETE FLEX
- Potholes resulting from low support, water saturated sublayer silty or clay soil, sublayer soft soil stabilisation and sulphate attack mitigation | QUANTCRETE EARTH & QUANTCRETE CURE
- Low flexural strength that causes depressions in airport runways and highways due to material fatigue especially from heavier aeroplanes and slow moving (heavy duty) vehicles | QUANTCRETE FLEX
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
From an environmental perspective, QuantCrete can serve as a bitumen partial substitute so as to :
Help increase the resilience, longevity and durability of airport runways, bridges, roads and highways
Lower the concentration of bitumen used in road construction in order to improve air quality & as such
Reduce the negative environmental impact of bitumen/asphalt via the development of lighter-coloured roads that absorb less solar radiation thus minimising their contribution to the urban island heat effect.
Lower the carbon footprint of road construction by enabling the development of more robust concrete with less cement.
Shorten construction time, by providing rapid strength gain
CONTEMPORARY INDUSTRY MATERIALS VS. QUANTCRETE
MATERIAL BLAINE (cm²/g)
____________________________________________________PORTLAND CEMENT 3700
SLAG CEMENT 4000
FLY ASH 4200
PUMICE POWDER 5000
ULTRAFINE CEMENT 8320
METAKAOLIN 43300
CONDENSED SILICA FUME ~ 200,000
NANOARC QUANTCRETE 359,300 - 1,486,400
PRODUCTS
QuantCrete products are sold exclusively on our website.
Click on "PAY NOW" next to the product(s) of interest to pay with a credit card or contact trade@nanoarc.org to request an invoice for payment via bank transfer.
USAGE : Simply add the QuantCrete nanoadditive powder to your cement or concrete mix in the dry phase, mix thoroughly prior to BLENDING with asphalt/bitumen, then proceed as usual.
QuantCrete are high performance nanoadditives, that can be used in cement replacement endeavours as well as the enhancement of both cement and concrete systems. The dosage values provided can be increased or decreased, depending on your designated project specifications.
SUBSCRIPTION MODEL : GET DISCOUNTS & FREE SHIPPING OFF ADVANCE PURCHASES ON SELECT PRODUCTS below bulk order volumes
QUARTERLY ( 5 % ) | BI-ANNUALLY ( 10 % ) | ANNUALLY ( 15 % )
WE SHIP WORLDWIDE
QUANTCRETETM EARTH
APPLICATIONS : In Adobe, Rammed-Earth and Road Construction, this system serves as an environmentally-friendly soil, cement & concrete nanoadditive to mitigate sulphate attack. It increases the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value of the treated sublayer soil in particular, acid sulphate soils. It minimises the swelling ratio of soil and initiates essential chemical reactions creating compounds that form strong bonding forces between soil particles, hence reducing soil porosity which consequently improves its engineering properties and durability.
It serves as an expansive agent to reduce autogenous-shrinkage, Increases Compressive & Tensile Strength, Corrosion Inhibitor (Mitigate sulphate attack) & pH Elevator, Mold and Mildew Resistance, Low Air Permeability, Abrasion Resistance, Antistatic Agent, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
BLAINE : 359300 cm²/g
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN SOIL : 3g (0.1 oz.) per tonne of soft sublayer soil
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN LIQUID SPRAY MEDIUM : 0.3 g per litre
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 3.8g (~ 0.11 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per tonne of soil) : 0.0003 %
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.00016 %
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 2,250
250 grams (8.81. oz) | £ 21,000
1 kg (2.2 lb) | £ 81,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM NANOFILLER
APPLICATIONS : Compressive Strength reinforcement, improve workability, UV filtering, Antibacterial, Antifouling, Anticorrosion (resistance to chloride attack), Reduced Alkali Reactivity, Water Repellant, Lower Air permeability, Whitener/colour additive, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
Helps in the consolidation of unsound formations, repairing casing leaks in squeeze operations, particularly “tight” leaks that are inaccessible to microfine and conventional cement slurries due to their larger particle size and limited penetrability.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : ~ 5 nm (0.005 μm) spherical particles
BLAINE/ SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA : 415300 cm²/g
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 50 % LESS PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0003 - 0.0004 wt %
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 0 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0008 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 2.9g (~ 0.08 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.00012 %
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GAIN**: approx. 18 - 22 %
**Strength increases with dose augmentation
**Early strength gain is retarded slightly in days 1-7, when superplasticizers are used but picks up significantly afterwards
MINIMUM REDUCTION (per m3 of CONCRETE) : approx. 11 %
CO2 DEDUCTION (per m3 of CONCRETE) : approx. 237,60 kg (equivalent of ~ 0.24 carbon offset credits)
1 carbon credit = 1 tonne of CO2
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 2,900
250 grams (8.81 oz.) | £ 25,000
1 kg (2.2 lb) | £ 99,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM NANOFLEX
APPLICATIONS : Compressive & Flexural/Tensile Strength reinforcement, improve workability, UV filtering, Antibacterial, Antifouling, Anticorrosion (enhanced resistance to chloride attack), Reduced Alkali Reactivity, Water Repellant, Lower Air permeability, Whitener/colour additive, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
Helps in the consolidation of unsound formations, repairing casing leaks in squeeze operations, particularly “tight” leaks that are inaccessible to QuantCrete NanoFiller, QUANTCEM CURE, microfine and conventional cement slurries due to their larger particle size and limited penetrability.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : Atomically Thin 2D sheets ( < 1 nm)
BLAINE : 635200 cm²/g
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 50 % LESS PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0002 - 0.00034 wt %
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 0 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0007 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 2.4g (~ 0.07 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.0001 %
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GAIN**: approx. 20 - 43 %
AVERAGE FLEXURAL STRENGTH GAIN**: approx. 12 - 40 %
**Strength increases with dose augmentation
**Early strength gain is retarded slightly in days 1-7, when superplasticizers are used but picks up significantly afterwards
MINIMUM CEMENT REDUCTION (per m3 of CONCRETE): approx. 17 %
CO2 DEDUCTION (AT 2.4G DOSE per m3 of CONCRETE) : approx. 367,20 kg (equivalent of ~ 0.37 carbon offset credits)
1 carbon credit = 1 tonne of CO2
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 3,250
250 grams (8.81. oz) | £ 29,000
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 116,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCEMTM CURE (NANO-CEMENT)
APPLICATIONS : Nano-cementitious system to accelerate the setting rate of concrete and offset the negative impact of fly ash and GGBS on the early-age properties of concrete. Improved workability, Nano-Filler, Compressive Strength reinforcement of concrete mortar and cement paste, Whitener/colour additive, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
Helps in the consolidation of unsound formations, repairing casing leaks in squeeze operations, particularly “tight” leaks that are inaccessible to microfine and conventional cement slurries due to their larger particle size and limited penetrability.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : <25 nm (0.025 μm) hollow semi-spherical nanoparticles
BLAINE : 388000 cm²/g
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 50 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0003 -0.0005 wt %
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 0 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0008 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE IN GROUT : 0.0011 - 0.0021 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE* : 2.7g ( 0.08 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.00011 %
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GAIN**: approx. 16 - 20 %
*MINIMUM CEMENT REDUCTION (per m3 of CONCRETE) : approx. 10 %
*CO2 DEDUCTION (per m3 of CONCRETE) : approx. 216 kg (equivalent of ~ 0.22 carbon offset credits)
1 carbon credit = 1 tonne of CO2
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 2,000
250 grams (8.81 oz.) | £ 18,000
1 kg (2.2 lb) | £ 70,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCEMTM X-PRESS (NANO-CEMENT)
APPLICATIONS : Helps reduce concrete cure/setting time by working as an accelerator or early stage activator of ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS or GGBFS) and enhance concrete strength gain. Expansive agent to reduce autogenous-shrinkage, Increase Compressive & Tensile Strength, Corrosion Inhibitor (Mitigate sulphate attack) & pH Elevator, Mold and Mildew Resistance, Low Air Permeability, Abrasion Resistance, Antistatic Agent, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
BLAINE : 359300 cm²/g
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 50 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0004 -0.0005 wt %
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN CONCRETE AT 0 % PORTLAND CEMENT USAGE : 0.0009 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE IN (NON-SHRINKING) GROUT : 0.002 - 0.003 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 3.8g ( 0.11 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.00016 %
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GAIN**: approx. 12 - 17 % in 24 to 72 hours
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 2,250
250 grams (8.81. oz) | £ 21,000
1 kg (2.2 lb) | £ 81,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM PROTECT
APPLICATIONS : Abrasion resistance, nano-pore filler, increased compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength, water resistance, insulating material, fire retardant.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSE IN (MICRO)CEMENT: ~ 0.004 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 5.7g ( 0.2 oz. per cubic yard)
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
50 grams (1.76 oz.) | £ 3,255
500 grams (17.63 oz.) | £ 31,500
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 63,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETE RADIATION SHIELDING SYSTEMS
Radiation shielding simply means having some material between the source of radiation and you (or some device) that will absorb the radiation. Radiation shielding is very crucial for the protection of people. Particularly, for the protection of personnel in nuclear power plants, medical centres and the environment, from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
In nuclear power plants, the central problem is to shield against gamma rays and neutrons. Of the various forms of radiation known to man, neutrons are considered to be the most severe and dangerous radiation to the body. This is due to their high kinetic energy and because they are uncharged, neutrons are more penetrating than alpha radiation or beta radiation. In some cases, they are even more penetrating than gamma radiation.
In nuclear power plants, fast neutrons create structural defects, which result in the embrittlement of material of pressure vessel in nuclear power plants. The neutron absorption reaction is hence the most important type of reaction that take place in a nuclear reactor.
BENEFITS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
Scientific studies unanimously show, that radiation shielding with nanoparticles is much more effective than with micro-particles. As the nanoparticle size decreases, the radiation shielding capacity increases. When such nanoparticles are infused in a grout prior to coating on a surface, only a thin layer is sufficient to shield thermal neutrons.
Pores in cement/concrete without nanoparticles create decrease the mechanical strength, density, as well as the ability of cement/concrete to attenuate radiation. When the pores in cement/concrete are filled with ultrafine nanoparticles with sizes smaller than harmless pores ( < 20 nm) the mechanical strength, density and radiation attenuation capacity of the cement/concrete system increases substantially. With the cement/concrete mixture performance maximized by virtue of such radiation-attenuating nanoparticles (< 20 nm), it performs achieves enhanced radiation shielding goal simultaneously with a higher heat and embrittlement resistance.
QUANTCRETETM MARINE
APPLICATIONS
Accelerated hydration of cement and flyash-based concrete and early strength gain. Antibiofilm and corrosion resistant nanoadditive for concrete and cement used in marine environments. Mechanical reinforcement of lightweight Concrete, repair of perforations and cracks via autogenous healing when mixed in cement and concrete, filler material, impact resistance, antimicrobial, biocompatible without causing harm to surrounding marine life, non-toxic flame retardant, corrosion inhibitor.
QuantCrete MARINE is suitable for aquatic environment construction e.g. swimming pools, bathrooms, sinks, agricultural, submerged architecture and waterfront structural features and related marine constructs. It offers offers anti-biofilm as well as anti-fungal protection and corrosion resistance in concrete and cement particularly for use in marine environments to minimise or prevent damage from sainity and unsilgtly stains caused by algae, fungi and bacterial proliferation on aquatic and wet environment construction surfaces.
NUCLEAR FACILITIES & RADIOACTIVE SITE PROTECTION: Blended into mortar, within and on concrete surfaces, QuantCrete MARINE helps in reducing the need for decommissioning of existing nuclear infrastructure. It can also be coated on hardened cement paste blocks.
QuantCrete MARINE adhesion is efficient on rough surfaces and its presence enables a uniformly thin but dense nanocoating for the protection of concrete infrastructure from radiological contamination, works as a barrier layer to prevent radioactive contaminants such as Uranium (U) and Strontium (Sr) ingression into underlying cement substrates. Particularly, into new and out of pre-existing concrete infrastructure.
NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT : It is effective in the removal of U, Cs, Sr and I, alongside other radionuclides such as Np, Am, Pu and Co. QUANTCRETE MARINE exhibits higher reactivity to Uranium (U) than granulated carbon-based sorbents.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : Atomically Thin 2D sheets
BLAINE : 703000 cm²/g
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN (MICRO)CEMENT : 0.001 - 0.003 wt % or as needed, depending on the nature of the surrounding environment.
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : From 2.88 g (~ 0.08 oz. per cubic yard) or as needed, depending on the nature of the surrounding environment.
NUCLEAR WASTE MANAGEMENT : It is effective in the removal of U, Cs, Sr and I, alongside other radionuclides such as Np, Am, Pu and Co. QUANTCRETE MARINE exhibits higher reactivity to Uranium (U) than granulated carbon-based sorbents.
1g (0.035 oz) absorbs approx. 2088 mg of U
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 3,750
250 grams (8.81 oz.) | £ 35,000
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 140,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM THERM
APPLICATIONS : High thermal mass material for concrete insulation, High density concrete is efficient in heat retention than standard concrete. This enables it to be used retard hold in solar heat from exteriors (hot climate) or retard solar heat loss from interiors (temperate and cold climates) or as a high emissivity coating to release heat to the environment, when surrounding temperatures drop.
Gamma ray shielding, Flexural aggregate in high density concrete for radiation shielding in nuclear power plants, X-ray facilities and uranium mining sites. Colour additive, Halogen-Free Flame Retardant.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : Atomically Thin 2D sheets
BLAINE : 495500 cm²/g
COLOUR : Black/Blackish-Brown Nanopowder
EMISSIVITY (PERFECT EMISSIVITY = 1 ) : 0.969 to 0.973
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 3.12g (~ 0.09 oz. per cubic yard) or AS NEEDED
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.00013 %
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 3,500
250 grams (8.81 oz.) | £ 34,000
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 136,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM NEUTRON
APPLICATIONS : Nano-Pore Filler, Halogen-Free Flame-Retardant, Neutron attenuator in high density concrete for nuclear power plants & X-ray facilities.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : < 20 nm Nanoparticles (0.02 μm)
COLOUR : White/Beige Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSE IN (MICRO)CEMENT/SURFACE COATING : 0.001 wt % or as needed for the nature of radiation exposure
AVERAGE DOSE IN GROUT : 0.001 - 1 wt %
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QUANTITY | PRICE
5 grams (0.17 oz.) | £ 7,000
50 grams (1.76 oz.) | £ 50,000
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 949,810
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
QUANTCRETETM SUBSEAL
APPLICATIONS : Porosity minimisation to substantially Lower Air permeability and the probability of Radon penetration in foundation structures, basements and building floor levels in direct contact with the soil. Compressive Strength reinforcement in concrete, Improved workability, Corrosion-resistance, Reduced Alkaline Reactivity, Water Repellant.
Helps in the consolidation of unsound formations, repairing casing leaks in squeeze operations, particularly “tight” leaks that are inaccessible to microfine and conventional cement slurries due to their larger particle size and limited penetrability.
TECHNICAL DATA & DOSAGE
NANOARCHITECTURE : 5 - 7 nm ( 0.005 - 0.007 μm) spherical particles
BLAINE : 415000 cm²/g
COLOUR : White Nanopowder
AVERAGE DOSAGE IN (MICRO)CEMENT AT 50 % LESS CEMENT USAGE : 0.002 - 0.003 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE IN GROUT : 0.002 - 0.003 wt %
AVERAGE DOSE PER m3 OF CONCRETE : 4.8g (~ 0.17 oz. per cubic yard)
WT % (per m3 of CONCRETE) : 0.0002 %
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH GAIN** : approx. 28 - 34 %
**Strength increases with dose augmentation
**Early strength gain is retarded slightly in days 1-7, when superplasticizers are used but picks up significantly afterwards
VIEW PRICING
QUANTITY | PRICE
25 grams (0.88 oz.) | £ 2,500
250 grams (8.81 oz.) | £ 24,750
1kg (2.2 lb) | £ 99,000
BULK ORDER RATES : From 1 Tonne | CONTACT trade@nanoarc.org
UNDERSTANDING RADON:
Radon (Rn) is a radioactive, odourless, colourless, tasteless noble gas. Rn is a contaminant, that affects indoor air quality, worldwide. According to EPA policy-oriented estimates, Rn is the number one cause of lung cancer, among non-smokers.
Rn enters a building most often directly through the soil at the lowest level of the construct that is in contact with the ground. This typical occurs through cracks in solid foundations and walls, construction joints, gaps in suspended floors, cavities within walls and around service pipes.
DIMENSION-BASED SOLUTION
Radioactive radon particles vary in size.
When attached to an aerosol, radon particles range in size from 50-300 nm (0.05 - 0.3 μm)
Unattached radon particles range from 3 - 5 nm (0.003 - 0.005 μm) in size
HOW TO USE QUANTCRETE IN RADON MITIGATION/MINIMISATION EFFORTS
To minimise the penetration of Rn into buildings, QuantCrete is hence offered to substantially lower porosity, air permeability and mitigate of crack formation in concrete and mortar. QuantCrete nanoparticles are of the same size range as unattached radon particles.
As such QuantCrete nanoparticles used to densify concrete and can form a dense structure therein, acting as a physical as well as chemical barrier, to prevent the diffusion of Radon, through a basement concrete floor.
To achieve this, the QuantCrete nanopowder can be used as an integral ingredient in the manufacture of precast slabs and foundation concrete or, mixed with a liquid cement and injected within particularly hard to visualise and detect sub-micron and nanoscopic pores, cracks & cavities that cement particles can not reach or penetrate, in order to create a denser seal, that minimises the likelihood of Rn gas infiltrating the building, via its ground level and sub-terrain/basement walls.
This nanotechnology-based approach offers a durable, sustainable, long term mitigation effort, to prevent Rn gas from entering the building through the underlying soil.